2024最新版本!途游四川麻将究竟有挂吗2024最新研发科技-哔哩哔哩_植物

2024最新版本!途游四川麻将究竟有挂吗2024最新研发科技-哔哩哔哩

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2024-11-11 07:06:55

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2024最新版本!途游四川麻将究竟有挂吗2024最新研发科技-哔哩哔哩是一款可以让一直输的玩家，快速成为一个“必胜”的ai辅助神器，途游四川麻将软件透明挂可以一键让你轻松成为“必胜”。其操作方式十分简单，打开这个应用便可以自定义途游四川麻将系统规律，只需要输入自己想要的开挂功能，一键便可以生成出途游四川麻将专用辅助器，不管你是想分享给你好友或者途游四川麻将 ia辅助都可以满足你的需求。同时应用在很多场景之下这个途游四川麻将计算辅助也是非常有用的哦，使用起来简直不要太过有趣。特别是在大家途游四川麻将透明挂时可以拿来修改自己的牌型，让自己变成“教程”，让朋友看不出。凡诸如此种场景可谓多的不得了，非常的实用且有益，有需要的用户可以找（我v99834737）下载使用。

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1、操作简单，容易上手;

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作者｜史晓丽郭威中国政法大学国际法学院

欧盟以绿色转型为名对“新三样”产业实施大规模专向补贴

前言

一、欧盟设立多项支持基金为“新三样”产业提供大量补贴

欧盟以推动绿色转型、落后地区发展等名义设立了至少十一项支持性基金，为“新三样”产业提供补贴，这些基金包括“复苏和韧性基金”“地平线欧洲”“创新基金”“欧洲区域发展基金”“连接欧洲基金”“公正过渡基金”“凝聚力基金”“投资欧盟基金”“欧洲社会基金”“欧洲农业农村发展基金”以及“现代化基金”。

(一)欧盟基金向多个“新三样”项目提供全额补贴或者金额超过项目预算半数的大额补贴

在欧盟各项基金中，有五大基金(复苏和韧性基金、地平线欧洲、创新基金、欧洲区域发展基金和连接欧洲基金)经常以赠款和贷款形式为大量“新三样”项目提供全额补贴或者金额超过项目预算一半的大额补贴。

“复苏和韧性基金”(RRF)、“地平线欧洲”(HorizonEurope)、“创新基金”(InnovationFund)向“新三样”产业提供的补贴最多。RRF主要通过提供赠款和优惠贷款对绿色和数字化转型等领域提供补贴。据统计，到2024年4月，RRF已提供879亿欧元用以支持零排放或低排放车辆等可持续交通项目。[3]“地平线欧洲”旨在促进研发和创新，以支持绿色转型。该基金在2021-2027年的总预算为935亿欧元，其中2021-2022年已提供2273.5万欧元补贴。[4]“创新基金”主要是向低碳技术创新项目提供补贴，资金主要来源于欧盟碳排放交易收入。2021-2030年，该基金将提供至少400亿欧元赠款。[5]

“欧洲区域发展基金”(ERDF)和“连接欧洲基金”(CEF)也向“新三样”产业提供大量补贴。“欧洲区域发展基金”主要资助落后地区进行产业结构调整和转型，以缩小与欧盟其他地区的发展差距。2021-2027年，该基金将重点资助有助于绿色低碳转型的项目，[6]计划拨款1043亿欧元补贴能源转型和可持续城市交通等项目。[7]“连接欧洲基金”主要支持在交通、能源和数字服务领域发展高性能、可持续和高效互联的跨欧洲网络。[8]2021-2022年，该基金向18个能源项目提供了16.6亿欧元赠款(包括5个电力项目、4个二氧化碳项目、3个天然气项目、1个智能电网项目、5个跨境可再生能源项目)。[9]

(二)欧盟基金对电池产业的整体补贴力度最大

电池产业是电动汽车的上游，欧盟基金对其提供了大量直接赠款。在“新三样”产业中，电池行业获得欧盟基金补贴以及各成员国国家援助的项目数量最多。例如，“地平线欧洲”在2014-2020年向电池产业的307个研发项目提供了约8.73亿欧元赠款，“创新基金”在2021-2022年向电池产业的8个项目提供了约1.61亿欧元赠款，“欧洲区域发展基金”向14个成员国的459个电池相关项目提供了约3.19亿欧元赠款。[10]

在电池研发方面，“地平线欧洲”提供了大量拨款，并且对很多项目提供全额补贴。例如，该基金在2015年5月向法国、西班牙、比利时、卢森堡、瑞士、德国合作的新一代锂电池开发项目拨款约689万欧元(项目预算725万欧元)；[11]2020年1月向法国、意大利、波兰、西班牙、比利时、斯洛文尼亚、德国与乌克兰合作的全固态锂电池研发项目提供约781万欧元的全额资助；[12]2020年2月向法国、意大利、奥地利、瑞士、瑞典、德国与英国合作的电动汽车锂电池研发项目提供1025万欧元的全额资助；[13]2020年5月向法国、意大利、荷兰、西班牙、奥地利、比利时、德国与土耳其合作的硫化物基全固态锂电池(用于电动汽车)研发计划提供789万欧元的全额补贴；[14]2023年1月向法国、意大利、西班牙、奥地利、比利时、葡萄牙、斯洛文尼亚、德国、挪威合作的新一代锂电池研发项目提供799万欧元的全额资助。[15]

在电池制造方面，“欧洲区域发展基金”提供了大量拨款。例如，该基金在2018年9月向德国能源与环境化学中心的“未来电池项目”拨款80万欧元用于制造有机物电池(项目预算101万欧元)，[16]2019年10月向德国“汉堡能源转型和清洁空气计划”(项目预算6150万欧元)拨款778万欧元用于将集装箱运输车改造为电池车。[17]

在电池回收方面，“创新基金”提供了大量全额资助。例如，该基金在2022年4月向法国ERAMET公司的电动汽车锂电池回收项目提供了6755万欧元的全额补贴。[18]

(三)欧盟基金对光伏产业单个项目的补贴金额最大

在欧盟，具备自然条件的成员国大力发展光伏产业。虽然欧盟光伏项目在数量上相对较少，但是所需资金规模庞大。欧盟基金为其提供了大量全额补贴以及金额超过项目预算一半的高额补贴，补贴形式以直接赠款为主，兼有优惠贷款等支持方式。例如在2022年，欧盟各项基金向太阳能发电产业提供的补贴总额高达250亿欧元，高于风能发电补贴和生物质能燃料发电补贴。[19]

在光伏技术研发方面，“创新基金”和“地平线欧洲”提供了大量全额补贴、高额赠款与优惠贷款。例如“创新基金”在2021年1月向意大利国家电力公司提供了1.17亿欧元赠款，用于开发高性能光伏组件试点生产线。[20]“地平线欧洲”在2018年4月向法国、意大利、西班牙、瑞士、德国合作的公用光伏研发项目拨款940万欧元(项目预算1114万欧元)，[21]2022年10月向荷兰、西班牙、瑞典、瑞士、希腊、德国合作的超薄膜光伏技术和柔性光伏电池开发项目提供293万欧元的全额赠款，[22]2022年12月向法国、意大利、荷兰、葡萄牙、瑞典、瑞士、德国合作的钙钛矿光伏设施研发项目提供511万欧元的全额资助。[23]

在光伏设施安装方面，欧盟基金同样提供全额支持或大比例支持。例如，“复苏和韧性基金”为意大利多个光伏设施安装项目提供全额支持，包括2022年7月向农业光伏安装项目提供15亿欧元的全额赠款，[24]2023年7月向光伏电池生产商3Sun公司的生产设施扩建项目提供8950万欧元赠款。[25]

(四)欧盟基金对电动汽车产业的资助从研发、生产延伸至消费者补贴

欧盟基金对电动汽车产业至少提供了220亿欧元以赠款为主要形式的补贴，其中“复苏和韧性基金”(RRF)、“地平线欧洲”(HorizonEurope)、“欧洲区域发展基金”(ERDF)和“连接欧洲基金”(CEF)提供的补贴全面覆盖电动汽车研发、制造、配套充电设施安装和消费等环节。

例如，“复苏和韧性基金”向西班牙的多个电动汽车项目提供巨额补贴。2021年12月该基金向西班牙“电动和联网汽车行业经济复苏和转型战略性计划”(PERTEVEC)拨款15.5亿欧元(项目预算30亿欧元)以支持电动汽车和联网汽车全产业链研发，[26]2023年5月和7月再次向西班牙该项目提供8.37亿欧元[27]和5.287亿欧元赠款。在消费环节，法国从2023年起向电动汽车消费者提供相当于电动汽车含税价格27%的“生态补贴”，“复苏和韧性基金”为其拨款9.85亿欧元。[28]2021年西班牙的“高效和可持续出行项目III”(MOVESIII)获得“复苏和韧性基金”提供的1.5亿欧元用于补贴电动汽车消费和充电设施安装。[29]2021年，“复苏和韧性基金”向德国提供55亿欧元补贴以支持私人电动汽车、公共汽车和轨道汽车消费和充电基础设施安装，[30]2023年又向德国个人购置零排放汽车拨款27.64亿欧元。[31]

“地平线欧洲”在2015年6月为欧盟部分成员国(法国、意大利、捷克、德国、英国)合作的电动汽车能源系统优化项目提供800万欧元全额资助；[32]2016年10月，意大利、波兰、荷兰等10个欧盟成员国与白俄罗斯、土耳其、以色列、欧委会和欧洲绿色汽车倡议协会共同设立“ERA-NET”基金以促进欧洲电动汽车产业发展，“地平线欧洲”为其提供626万欧元。[33]2019年“地平线欧洲”向法国、奥地利、捷克、德国共同参与的电动汽车动力系统和关键零件制造技术的研发计划“1000kmPLUS”拨款540万欧元，[34]2022年7月向法国、意大利、西班牙、德国和土耳其合作的电动汽车电源转换系统改进计划提供599万欧元全额资助，[35]2024年1月向法国、意大利等11个欧盟成员国和挪威、英国合作的电动汽车全流程制造技术改进项目提供1138万欧元全额资助。[36]

“欧洲区域发展基金”在2022年11月为意大利、罗马尼亚和西班牙共同部署的电动汽车大功率充电基础设施网络项目拨款2138万欧元，[37]2019年2月向西班牙“高效和可持续的交通激励计划”(MOVES)提供1500万欧元补贴，[38]2020年向西班牙项目预算1亿欧元的MOVESII计划提供部分资金，[39]用于补贴电动汽车消费和充电基础设施安装。[40]

二、欧盟成员国通过本国公共资金为“新三样”提供大量国家援助

(一)欧盟设置多项国家援助豁免情形以大量补贴“新三样”产业

根据《欧盟运行条约》第107条第1款的规定，扭曲或可能扭曲竞争并对成员国之间的贸易造成影响的国家援助构成与欧盟内部市场不相容，各成员国不得提供。

但是该条第2款和第3款为该禁令设定了多种例外，只要满足例外条件，即便有扭曲作用，也构成与欧盟内部市场相容或者视为相容，各成员国就可以提供此类国家援助。例如，为“欧洲共同利益重要项目”(IPCEI)提供的国家援助以及为特定经济活动提供的国家援助等，就属于此类可以提供的国家援助。其中“欧洲共同利益重要项目”是指可以极大促进欧盟产业和经济增长、就业、绿色和数字化转型以及提高竞争力的项目。每个IPCEI项目至少应由四个成员国共同制定实施计划并向欧委会通报，经欧委会批准后方可实施。

《欧盟运行条约》第108条规定，各成员国应向欧委会通报拟实施的国家援助，在欧委会做出最终审查和批准决定前不得实施。但是，该条约授权欧盟理事会和欧委会规定无需通报即可实施的国家援助类型。为此，欧委会发布了《一般通用豁免条例》和《微量援助条例》。《一般通用豁免条例》规定成员国无需向欧委会通报即可实施区域援助、中小企业援助、环保援助、研发和创新援助、培训援助、宽带基础设施援助、地方基础设施援助、欧洲区域合作项目援助和与“投资欧盟基金”所支持金融产品有关的援助。《微量援助条例》规定成员国在3个财政年度内对每个企业提供的不超过30万欧元的微量援助无需向欧委会通报。

欧委会还发布了《临时性危机和过渡框架》，旨在扩充《欧盟运行条约》第107条所述“视为与欧盟内部市场相容”的国家援助范围。经欧委会批准，成员国可以通过赠款、税收优惠、贷款担保、优惠贷款、预付款等形式提供某些国家援助，其中包括与储能和推广可再生能源有关的投资援助和运营援助；与电气化和促进工业生产脱碳有关的援助；为减少电力消耗提供的援助；为加快向净零经济转型向相关战略产业提供的投资援助。

(二)欧盟成员国普遍补贴电池产业并辐射众多电池相关企业

欧盟成员国为“欧洲共同利益重要项目”(IPCEI)下的两期电池产业研发项目累计提供了超过60亿欧元的补贴，为区域援助计划下的六个项目提供了累计5.72亿欧元的补贴，补贴形式包括直接赠款、税收优惠与贷款担保。[41]

例如，2019年12月欧委会批准法国、意大利、波兰等七个欧盟成员国建立第一期电池IPCEI项目，向17家企业提供总额高达约32亿欧元的直接赠款，批准的国家援助金额分别是意大利5.7亿欧元，波兰2.4亿欧元，法国9.6亿欧元，比利时8000万欧元，芬兰3000万欧元，瑞典5000万欧元、德国12.5亿欧元。[42]在2021年1月欧委会批准的第二期电池IPCEI中，法国、意大利等12个参与国共计向42个受补贴企业提供总额约29亿欧元的国家援助，其中波兰、斯洛伐克、克罗地亚和希腊提供的部分国家援助还使用了“欧洲区域发展基金”提供的资金。各成员国在第二期电池IPCEI下提供的国家援助以赠款为主，金额分别是意大利6亿欧元，法国、克罗地亚和斯洛伐克各1亿欧元，波兰2000万欧元，瑞典5000万欧元，奥地利5000万欧元，比利时和希腊各4000万欧元，芬兰1000万欧元，西班牙100万欧元，德国15亿欧元。比利时还以“应偿还预付款”形式向相关研发机构提供了国家援助。[43]

法国和德国还向电池产业提供大额专向补贴。例如在法国，截至2023年5月，“法国2030计划”向电池研发项目(PEPR)提供了1900万欧元国家援助，“BATMAT计划”为80个成熟电池项目提供了1500万欧元国家援助，“电池创新解决方案和技术计划”为20个项目提供了7900万欧元国家援助，“材料回收创新解决方案计划”(RRR)提供了3000万欧元国家援助，向关键金属投资基金注入5亿欧元。[44]2024年1月，欧委会批准了德国对Northvolt公司9.02亿欧元的国家援助以支持其建设清洁电池工厂和大规模生产电池，该补贴包括7亿欧元的直接赠款和2.02亿欧元贷款担保。[45]

(三)欧盟成员国对光伏产业补贴期限最长并且单项补贴金额较大

在欧盟，法国和意大利等成员国为光伏电站建设和光伏发电项目提供长达20年的价格补贴，累计补贴金额至少达到236亿欧元。例如，2017年9月，欧委会批准法国以政府采购和电价补贴形式提供可再生能源发电国家援助，其中包含两项为期20年、总额不超过46亿欧元的光伏发电补贴。[46]2021年7月，欧委会批准法国拟实施的305亿欧元可再生能源发电国家援助，其中光伏产业电价补贴超过116亿欧元。[47]2021年8月，欧委会批准法国拟实施的57亿欧元国家援助，补贴方式是允许建筑物上峰值功率不超过500千瓦的小型光伏装置在20年内适用上网电价。[48]2023年11月，欧委会批准了意大利拟向农业光伏电站建设项目提供17亿欧元的国家援助计划，国家援助方式包括使用欧盟“复苏和韧性基金”提供的11亿欧元投资赠款以及5.6亿欧元并为期20年的双向差价合约或上网电价补贴，价格补贴方式依据受补贴方的装机容量确定。[49]

意大利等成员国还为安装光伏装置提供税收优惠。例如，2020年5月，意大利制定“110%超级补贴”政策，为进行房屋节能改造的意大利公民提供相当于改造费用110%的免税额度，免税方式包括所得税抵免、由供应商承担全部费用并获得免税额度、使用免税额度抵扣银行或保险公司提供的贷款。[50]其中，安装住宅光伏系统最高可获得4.8万欧元税收抵免。[51]从2024年起，意大利超级补贴政策的免税比例下调至70%。[52]

在欧盟，如果投资项目旨在生产光伏电池以及相关零部件，也可以获得直接赠款。例如，欧委会先后在2024年9月17日、9月27日和10月11日批准波兰12亿欧元、[53]葡萄牙10亿欧元、[54]卢森堡5.2亿欧元的国家援助计划，[55]用于支持战略设备生产方面的投资，包括电池、光伏电池板、风力涡轮机、热泵、电解槽、碳捕获的使用和储存设备以及相关重要零部件和关键原材料的生产，以加快向净零经济转型。[56]2024年10月3日，欧委会批准波兰12亿欧元国家援助计划，允许补贴储电设施投资，以促进向净零经济转型。[57]

(四)欧盟成员国普遍利用各项补贴政策刺激电动汽车消费

到2023年，欧盟27个成员国均制定了至少一项电动汽车消费补贴政策，补贴形式以税收优惠和赠款为主，仅德国就提供了100亿欧元补贴。[58]

在税收优惠方面，法国、西班牙和德国等成员国为电动汽车消费提供登记税、个人所得税、流通税等多种税收优惠。例如法国对纯电和混电汽车减免50%的登记费和100%的车牌注册费。[59]西班牙则在2023年6月对购置电动汽车和充电设备提供15%的个人所得税减免，其中电动汽车的扣税基数不超过2万欧元，充电设备的扣税基数不超过4000欧元。[60]在德国，2012年至2023年至少两次延长电动汽车的机动车免税期限，2016年还根据“政府电动汽车计划”为电动汽车提供为期10年的流通税豁免。[61]

赠款是欧盟成员国鼓励电动汽车消费的另一重要手段。例如2020年5月，法国开始实施80亿欧元的“汽车行业振兴计划”，国家援助范围包括电动汽车消费、生产和充电装置部署。[62]其中电动汽车消费领域的国家援助形式是向购车消费者发放生态补贴或者向购买电动或混电汽车以代替柴油或汽油车的消费者发放换车补贴。[63]在地方层面，2019年以来，巴黎都市圈的131个城市均为购置电动汽车提供了不同额度的国家援助。[64]在德国，2016年5月制定了“政府电动汽车计划”，为购买纯电和混合动力汽车的消费者提供12亿欧元“环境奖金”，以及为扩大充电基础设施提供3亿欧元补贴。“环境奖金”由联邦政府和汽车行业共同出资，其中半数发放给生产商以便其降低汽车售价，另一半以赠款形式发放给消费者。[65]2020-2021年，德国再次为购置电动汽车和氢电混合能源汽车提供22亿欧元“环境奖金”，并投入12亿欧元国家援助用于将公共汽车更新为电动汽车。[66]

充足和便利的充电设施是促进电动汽车消费的重要环节，因此法国、德国等欧盟成员国为充电设施安装提供了大量直接赠款和税收优惠。例如法国在2016年通过政府制定的“Advenir计划”至少提供了3.2亿欧元赠款用于安装充电设施。[67]法国还实施增值税优惠和税收抵免政策，其中对家用充电设施的增值税为5.5%，对在楼龄超过2年的建筑物上安装充电装置的增值税为10%，对在楼龄不满2年的建筑物上安装充电装置的增值税为20%，2021-2023年购买和安装充电装置还能享受最高300欧元的专项税收抵免。[68]在德国，2022年7月建立了联邦气候与转型基金(“KTF”)，用于推动2023-2026年的能源转型和气候保护。[69]2022年10月，德国交通部制定了涵盖68项具体措施的充电基础设施补贴计划，由该基金提供全额支持，资金规模为6.3亿欧元。2023年6月，德国交通部拨款9亿欧元用于完善该补贴计划，其中5亿欧元用于支持私人充电站建设，4亿欧元用于商用充电站建设。[70]

三、欧盟“新三样”产业巨额补贴取得成效并进一步加深市场扭曲

在推动绿色转型和落后地区发展等名义下，欧盟多个基金和各成员国国内资金为实施补贴提供了双重资金保障，赠款、税收减免、价格补贴、贷款优惠等补贴形式互为补充，共同服务于欧盟在全球“新三样”领域抢占发展先机、塑造领导力的目标。

花样繁多的补贴使欧盟“新三样”产业实现了快速协同发展。在电池产业，2014-2020年欧盟预算至少提供了17亿欧元的拨款和贷款担保，2019年以来各成员国仅以支持“欧洲共同利益重要项目”和区域发展的名义就提供了总额累计超过65.7亿欧元的国家援助。[71]在双重补贴的支持下，欧盟已拥有10家超级电池工厂和20个在建工厂，电池产能可以满足三分之二的欧盟市场需求。[72]2022-2023年，欧盟锂电池出口额在全球出口总额的占比从28.2%上升至30.3%。[73]在光伏领域，欧盟基金提供的补贴和各成员国的国家援助至少达到86亿欧元和236亿欧元。这些巨额补贴使欧盟在2021-2023年的光伏装机容量年增长率均超过40%，[74]2022-2023年欧盟太阳能电池板出口额增长19%，出口量增长37%。[75]在电动汽车领域，欧盟基金提供的补贴和各成员国提供的国家援助至少达到220亿欧元和108亿欧元。在补贴政策推动下，欧盟到2023年已拥有超过63万个公共充电点，2023年直流汽车充电装置增长率达到84%。[76]2022年欧盟电动汽车出口金额(223亿欧元)同比上涨100%，与2019年相比增长400%。[77]

总之，欧盟“新三样”补贴名目繁多，补贴对象具有专向性，补贴力度大，许多项目获得了全额补贴或者金额超过项目预算一半的补贴。这些补贴已见成效，对欧盟“新三样”产业的制造与出口起到了重要促进作用。随着欧盟“新三样”产业补贴规模和范围的不断扩大，市场扭曲作用将进一步加深。

(本文研究助理：符馨予，崔芸菲，黄旖璇，张倩茹)

参考文献

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[42]EuropeanCommission,Stateaid:Commissionapproves？.2billionpublicsupportbysevenMemberStatesforapan-Europeanresearchandinnovationprojectinallsegmentsofthebatteryvaluechain,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_19_6705;EuropeanCommission,StateAidSA.54793(2019/N)–BelgiumStateAidSA.54809(2019/N)–FinlandStateAidSA.54794(2019/N)–FranceStateAidSA.54801(2019/N)–GermanyStateAidSA.54806(2019/N)–ItalyStateAidSA.54808(2019/N)–PolandStateAidSA.54796(2019/N)–SwedenImportantProjectofCommonEuropeanInterest(IPCEI)onBatteries,https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202231/SA_54801_60A43582-0000-CEC2-BCDC-018723136555_325_1.pdf.

[43]Stateaid:Commissionapproves？.9billionpublicsupportbytwelveMemberStatesforasecondpan-Europeanresearchandinnovationprojectalongtheentirebatteryvaluechain，EuropeanCommission,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_226;EuropeanCommissionCompetitionPolicy,AutumnIPCEIBatteries–Austria,https://competition-cases.ec.europa.eu/cases/SA.55855;EuropeanCommission,Subject:StateAidSA.55855(2020/N)–AustriaStateAidSA.56665(2020/N)–GreeceStateAidSA.55840(2020/N)–BelgiumStateAidSA.55813(2020/N)–ItalyStateAidSA.55844(2020/N)–CroatiaStateAidSA.55859(2020/N)–PolandStateAidSA.55846(2020/N)–FinlandStateAidSA.55819(2020/N)–SlovakiaStateAidSA.55858(2020/N)–FranceStateAidSA.55896(2020/N)–SpainStateAidSA.55831(2020/N)–GermanyStateAidSA.55854(2020/N)–SwedenImportantProjectofCommonEuropeanInterestonEuropeanBatteryInnovation(EuBatIn)，https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202347/SA_55813_E0E4FC8B-0000-C6F2-8A8F-DC66E4CA80F9_580_1.pdf.

[44]MinistèreDeL’Economie,DesFinances,DeL’IndustrieEtDeLaSouverainetéNumérique,LaStratégienationalesurlesbatteriesdeFrance2030:aucurdeladecarbonationdesmobilités,https://www.economie.gouv.fr/files/files/2023/879%20-%20Dossier%20de%20presse%20-%20La%20strat%C3%A9gie%20nationale%20sur%20les%20batteries%20de%20France%202030%20-%20au%20c%C5%93ur%20de%20la%20d%C3%A9carbonation%20des%20mobilit%C3%A9s.pdf?v=1685632583.

[45]EuropeanCommission,Commissionapproves？02millionGermanStateaidmeasuretosupportNorthvoltintheconstructionofanelectricvehiclebatteryproductionplanttofosterthetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6823;EuropeanCommission,StateAidSA.107936(2023/N)–GermanyTCTF:AidtoNorthvoltGermanyGmbH,https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202427/SA_107936_157.pdf.

[46]EuropeanCommission,Stateaid:Commissionendorsesfoursupportschemestodeploymorethan7.5gigawattscapacityinrenewableenergyinFrance,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_17_3581;EuropeanCommission,Aided’tatSA.46552(2017/NN)—FranceSoutienparappelsd'offresaudéveloppementdesinstallationsdeproductiond'électricitéàpartirdel'énergiesolaireAided’tatSA.47753(2017/NN)—FranceSoutienparappelsd'offresaudéveloppementdesinstallationsdeproductiond'électricitéàpartirdel'énergiesolaire,implantéessurbtimentsAided’tatSA.48066(2017/NN)—FranceAppeld'offrestrisannuelpourl'éolienTerrestreAided’tatSA.48238(2017/N)—FranceSoutienparappelsd'offresaudéveloppementdesinstallationsdeproductiond'électricitéàpartirdel'énergiesolairephotovoltaqueouéolienneTerrestre,https://microeconomicevaluation.jrc.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2020-12/SA50272_DEC.pdf.

[47]EuropeanCommission,Stateaid:Commissionapproves？0.5billionFrenchschemetosupportproductionofelectricityfromrenewableenergysources,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_3922.

[48]EuropeanCommission,Stateaid:Commissionapproves？.7billionFrenchschemetosupportproductionofelectricityfromsmallsolarinstallationsonbuildings,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_21_4424；EuropeanCommission,Aided’tatSA.61902(2021/N)–FranceSoutientarifaireauxinstallationssurbtimentutilisantl'énergiesolaire2021-2026https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202143/SA_61902_B0339E7C-0000-CD6D-A658-E8078EE59425_141_1.pdf.

[49]EuropeanCommission,Commissionapproves？.7billionItalianStateaidschemeundertheRecoveryandResilienceFacilitytosupportagrivoltaicinstallations,https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_5451;EuropeanCommission,Subject:StateAidSA.107161(2023/N)–Italy–RRF-Supportforthepromotionofagrivoltaicinstallations,https://ec.europa.eu/competition/state_aid/cases1/202351/SA_107161_80CE688C-0100-C9DF-B4C3-FBF1C906FE1B_54_1.pdf.

[50]Ministerodell'Economiaedellefinanze,Alternativealledetrazioni,https://www.agenziaentrate.gov.it/portale/web/guest/alternative-alle-detrazioni.

[51]Ministerodell'Economiaedellefinanze,Alternativealledetrazioni,https://www.agenziaentrate.gov.it/portale/web/guest/alternative-alle-detrazioni.

[52]24ORE,Superbonusal70%nel2024:cosacambiaequalisonolealtreagevolazionifiscali,https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/superbonus-ecco-come-cambia-2024-110percento-scende-70percento-addio-le-villette-AFNUvM7B.

[53]EuropeanCommission,Commissionapproves？.2billionPolishStateaidschemetosupportinvestmentsinstrategicsectorstofosterthetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy.https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4141.

[54]EuropeanCommission,Commissionapproves？billionPortugueseStateaidschemetosupportinvestmentsinstrategicsectorsnecessarytofosterthetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy.https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4822.

[55]EuropeanCommission,Commissionapproves？20millionLuxembourgishStateaidschemestofosterthetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy.https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_5025.

[56]EuropeanCommission,StateAidSA.109581(2024/N)–PolandTCTF:Aidforinvestmentprojectsinsectorsstrategicforthetransitiontowardsanet-zeroeconomy.

[57]EuropeanCommission,Commissionapproves？.2billionPolishStateaidschemetosupportinvestmentsinelectricitystoragefacilitiestofosterthetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy.https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_4985.

[58]BMWK,UmweltbonusendetmitAblaufdes17.Dezember2023,https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/DE/Pressemitteilungen/2023/12/20231216-umweltbonus-endet-mit-ablauf-des-17-dezember-2023.html.

[59]EuropeanCommission,EuropeanAlternativeFuelsObservatory-France,https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/road/france/incentives-legislations.

[60]AgenciaTributaria,Deductionfortheacquisitionof"plug-in"electricvehicles,https://sede.agenciatributaria.gob.es/Sede/en_gb/vehiculos-embarcaciones/deduccion-irpf-adquisicion-vehiculos-electricos/deduccion-adquisicion-vehiculos-electricos-enchufables/porcentaje-deduccion-que-periodo-impositivo-aplica.html.

[61]AnalysisoftherecoveryandresilienceplanofGermanyAccompanyingthedocumentProposalforaCOUNCILIMPLEMENTINGDECISIONamendingImplementingDecision(EU)(ST10158/21andST10158/21ADD1)ontheapprovaloftheassessmentoftherecoveryandresilienceplanforGermany,https://commission.europa.eu/document/download/1aee8883-f34d-4526-ba13-98d591254eb5_en?filename=SWD_2023_371_1_EN_autre_document_travail_service_part1_v4.pdf.

[62]Ministèredel'économiedesfinancesetdelasouverainetéindustrielleetnumérique,Leplandesoutienàlafilièreautomobile,https://www.economie.gouv.fr/plan-soutien-filiere-automobile#.

[63]lysée,Plusverteetpluscompétitive:notreplandesoutienàlafilièreautomobile,https://www.elysee.fr/emmanuel-macron/2020/05/26/plus-verte-et-plus-competitive-notre-plan-de-soutien-a-la-filiere-automobile.

[64]EuropeanCommission,EuropeanAlternativeFuelsObservatory-France,https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/road/france/incentives-legislations.

[65]BMWK,Regulatoryenvironmentandincentivesforusingelectricvehiclesanddevelopingacharginginfrastructure,https://www.bmwk.de/Redaktion/EN/Artikel/Industry/regulatory-environment-and-incentives-for-using-electric-vehicles.html.

[66]Electrive,GermanydoublesEVsubsidies,nomoredieselsupport,https://www.electrive.com/2020/06/04/germany-doubles-ev-subsidies-no-more-diesel-support/;Reuters,Germancabinetspeedsupstimuluspackage,https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-germany-stimulus/german-cabinet-plans-meeting-on-friday-to-implement-stimulus-package-sources-idUSKBN23F0UJ/?il=0;Reuters,Factbox:Germany'sstimuluspackagehelpsconsumersandcompanies,https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-germany-stimulus-p/factbox-germanys-stimulus-package-helps-consumers-and-companies-idUSKBN23A3IN/.

[67]ADVENIR,Leprogrammedefinancementdebornesderechargepourvéhiculeélectrique,https://advenir.mobi/.

[68]EuropeanCommission,EuropeanAlternativeFuelsObservatory-France,https://alternative-fuels-observatory.ec.europa.eu/transport-mode/road/france/incentives-legislations.

[69]PressandInformationOfficeoftheFederalGovernment,170billioneurosforenergysuppliesandclimateprotection,https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/news/climate-and-transformation-fund-2066034;BMDV,ChargingInfrastructureMasterplanII,https://bmdv.bund.de/SharedDocs/EN/publications/charging-infrastructure-masterplan-ii.pdf?__blob=publicationFile;TheFederalGovernment,170billioneurosforenergysuppliesandclimateprotection,https://www.bundesregierung.de/breg-en/news/climate-and-transformation-fund-2066034.

[70]GTAI,GermanytoInvestAdditionalEUR900MillioninEVChargingInfrastructure,https://www.gtai.de/en/invest/industries/mobility/automotive-industry/germany-to-invest-additional-eur-900-million-in-ev-charging-infrastructure-1019410.

[71]EuropeanCourtofAuditors,Specialreport15/2023:TheEU’sindustrialpolicyonbatteriesNewstrategicimpetusneeded.

[72]EuropeanCommission,StateaidScoreboard2023,https://competition-policy.ec.europa.eu/document/download/0b2037c5-c43f-4917-b654-f48f74444015_en?filename=state_aid_scoreboard_note_2023.pdf.

[73]World'sTopExports，LithiumIonBatteriesExportsbyCountry,https://www.worldstopexports.com/lithium-ion-batteries-exports-by-country/;World'sTopExports,LithiumIonBatteriesExportsbyCountry,https://www.worldstopexports.com/lithium-ion-batteries-exports-by-country/.

[74]SolarPowerEU,Newreport:EUsolarreachesrecordheightsof56GWin2023butwarnsofcloudsonthehorizon,https://www.solarpowereurope.org/press-releases/new-report-eu-solar-reaches-record-heights-of-56-gw-in-2023-but-warns-of-clouds-on-the-horizon.

[75]Eurostat,EUimportsingreenenergyproductshigherthanexports,https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20241014-1.

[76]Statzon,E-MobilityEurope:AnOverviewofEurope’sLatestElectricVehiclesData,https://statzon.com/insights/e-mobility-europe-an-overview-of-europes-latest-electric-vehicles-data.

[77]ACEA,InactiononEU-UKelectricvehicletradecouldcost？.3bnandhitproduction,EUautomakerswarn,https://www.acea.auto/press-release/inaction-on-eu-uk-electric-vehicle-trade-could-cost-e4-3bn-and-hit-production-eu-auto-makers-warn/.

EU’sSpecifiedandMassiveSubsidiesfor“NewTrio”IndustryUnderGreenTransition

Author|ShiXiaoli,GuoWei,ChinaUniversityofPoliticalScienceandLaw

Preface

OnOctober29,2024,theEuropeanCommissionissuedanoticeimposingcountervailingdutiesonelectricvehiclesimportedfromChinastartingfromOctober30.Infact,OfficialEuropeanUnion(EU)statistics[1]revealthatinrecentyears,theEUanditsmemberstateshaveheavilysubsidizedthe“newtrio”industries—lithiumbatteries,photovoltaicproducts,andelectricvehicles—overrecentyearsthroughgrants,taxbreaks,low-interestloans,loanguarantees,andpricesubsidies.Thesemeasures,justifiedbygreentransitionandregionaldevelopmentgoals,aimtoenhanceglobalcompetitivenessandsecurealeadinemergingindustries.AlthoughtheEUhasestablishedrulestolimitstateaidfrommembercountries,ithasalsointroducednumerousexemptionclausesthatallowforspecifiedanddistortionarysubsidiesbymemberstates.Additionally,theEUhassetupseveralsupportivefundstoprovidedirectgrantsunderitsownname.Throughitsdual-channelsubsidymechanism(EUfundsandmemberstateaid)，theEUprovideseitherfullorhigh-costcoverageformany“newtrio”projects,resultinginsubstantialfundingsupport.Forexample,in2022,theEUprovidedatotalofEUR25billioninsubsidiestothesolarpowerindustrythroughvariousfunds.[2]

I.TheEUoffersextensivesubsidiestothe“newtrio”industriesviamultiplefunds

Underthebannerofpromotinggreentransitionandsupportingthedevelopmentofdisadvantagedregions,theEUhasestablishedatleast11supportfundstosubsidizethe“newtrio”industries.ThesefundsincludetheRecoveryandResilienceFacility(RRF)，HorizonEurope,InnovationFund,JustTransitionFund(JTF)，EuropeanRegionalDevelopmentFund(ERDF)，CohesionFund,InvestEUFund,EuropeanSocialFund(ESF)，ConnectingEuropeFacility(CEF)，EuropeanAgriculturalFundforRuralDevelopment(EAFRD)，andtheModernisationFund(MF).

A.EUfundsprovidefullormajoritysubsidiesformultiple“newtrio”projects

AmongthevariousEUfunds,fivemajorfunds—theRRF,HorizonEurope,InnovationFund,ERDF,andCEF—oftenprovidefullsubsidiesorsubstantialgrants,coveringuptohalformoreoftheprojectcostsfornumerous“newtrio”initiativesthroughgrantsandloans.

TheRRF,HorizonEuropeandInnovationFundhaveprovidedthelargestsubsidiestothe“newtrio”sectors.TheRRFprimarilyprovidessubsidiesforareassuchasgreenanddigitaltransitionsthroughgrantsandpreferentialloans.AsofApril2024,theRRFhasprovidedEUR87.9billiontosupportsustainabletransportationprojects,includingzero-orlow-emissionvehicles.[3]TheHorizonEuropeaimsatpromotingresearchandinnovationtosupportthegreentransition.ThefundhasatotalbudgetofEUR93.5billionforthe2021-2027period,withsubsidiesamountingtoEUR22.735millionalreadyprovidedfrom2021to2022.[4]TheInnovationFundprimarilyprovidessubsidiestolow-carbontechnologyinnovationprojects,withfundingmainlysourcedfromEUcarbonemissionstradingrevenue.From2021to2030,thisfundwillgrantatleastEUR40billion.[5]

TheERDFandtheCEFalsoprovidefullorlargegrantsubsidiestothe“newtrio”sectors.TheERDFprimarilyfinancesstructuraladjustmentsandtransformationsindisadvantagedregionstoreducethedevelopmentgapwithotherEUareas.From2021to2027,itfocusesonpromotingagreenandlow-emissiontransition,[6]allocatingEUR104.3billiontosubsidizeprojectssuchasenergytransitionandsustainableurbanmobility.[7]TheCEFmainlysupportsthedevelopmentofhigh-performance,sustainable,andinterconnectedtrans-Europeannetworksacrosstransport,energy,anddigitalservicesectors.[8]From2021to2022,thefundawardedEUR1.66billioningrantsto18energyprojects,including5electricityprojects,4carbondioxideprojects,3naturalgasprojects,1smartgridproject,and5cross-borderrenewableenergyprojects.[9]

B.TheEUfundsprovidemostsubsidiestothebatteryindustry

Asanupstreamsectorofelectricvehicles,thebatteryindustryhasreceivedsubstantialdirectgrantsfromEUfunds.Withinthe“newtrio”industries,batteryprojectsreceivethelargestshareofsubsidiesfromEUfundsandstateaid,withmanyfullysubsidizedorreceivingoverhalfoftheirbudget.ExamplesincludetheHorizonEuropegrantingapproximatelyEUR873millionto307batteryRDprojectsfrom2014to2020,theInnovationFundawardingEUR161millionto8batteryprojectsfrom2021to2022,andtheERDFallocatingEUR319millionto459battery-relatedprojectsacross14memberstates.[10]

InthefieldofbatteryRD,theHorizonEuropehasprovidedsubstantialfunding,withmanyprojectsreceivingfullsubsidies.InMay2015,itallocatedEUR6.89milliontoaprojectdevelopinganewgenerationoflithium-ionbatteries,collaborativelyundertakenbyFrance,Spain,Belgium,Luxembourg,Switzerland,andGermany(withaprojectbudgetofEUR7.25million).[11]InJanuary2020,itprovidedafullsubsidyofEUR7.81milliontoanall-solid-statebatteryRDprojectinvolvingFrance,Italy,Poland,Spain,Belgium,Slovenia,Germany,andUkraine.[12]InFebruary2020,itallocatedEUR10.25milliontoelectricvehiclelithiumbatteryRDprojectsjointlyconductedbyFrance,Italy,Austria,Switzerland,Sweden,Germany,andtheUK.[13]InMay2020,itgrantedEUR7.89milliontoasulfide-basedall-solid-statelithiumbatteryRDprojectforelectricvehicles,withparticipationfromFrance,Italy,Spain,Austria,Belgium,theNetherlands,Germany,andTurkey.[14]InJanuary2023,itallocatedafullsubsidyofEUR7.99milliontoanext-generationlithiumbatteryRDproject,collaborativelycarriedoutbyFrance,Italy,Spain,Austria,Belgium,Portugal,Slovenia,Germany,andNorway.[15]

Inthefieldofbatterymanufacturing,theERDFhasprovidedsubstantialfunding.InSeptember2018,thefundallocatedEUR800,000toTheBatteriesfortheFutureprojectattheCenterforEnergyandEnvironmentalChemistry(CEEC)inJena,Germany,tosupporttheproductionoforganicbatteries(withaprojectbudgetofEUR1.01million).[16]InOctober2019,itprovidedEUR7.78milliontoGermany’s“EnergyTransitionandCleanerAirinHamburg:HHLA’scontainertransportersrunonsmartbatteriesinsteadofdiesel”project(withaprojectbudgetofEUR61.5million)，aimedatconvertingcontainertransportvehiclesintobattery-poweredtrucks.[17]

Inthefieldofbatteryrecycling,theInnovationFundhasprovidedsubstantialfullsubsidies.InApril2022,thefundfinancedEUR67.55milliontotheFrenchcompanyERAMETforitselectricvehiclelithiumbatteryrecyclingproject.[18]

C.EUfundsprovidethelargestsubsidiesforindividualprojectsinthephotovoltaicindustry

IntheEU,memberstateswithfavorablenaturalconditionsareactivelydevelopingthephotovoltaicindustry.Althoughthenumberofphotovoltaicsubsidiesisrelativelylow,therequiredfundingissubstantial.TheEUfundsprovidegeneroussubsidiesthatoftencoverallormorethanhalfoftheprograms’budget,mainlythroughdirectgrants,alongwithpreferentialloans,pricesubsidies,andothersupportmechanisms.Forinstance,in2022,EUfundsprovidedatotalofEUR25billioninsubsidiestothesolarpowerindustry,exceedingthesubsidiesallocatedtowindpowerandbiomassenergygeneration.[19]

TheRDofphotovoltaictechnologyhasreceivedsubstantialfullsubsidies,largegrants,andpreferentialloansfromtheInnovationFundandHorizonEurope.InJanuary2021,theInnovationFundgrantedEUR117milliontoEnelinItalytodevelopapilotproductionlineforhigh-performancephotovoltaicmodules.[20]InApril2018,theHorizonEuropeallocatedEUR9.4milliontoapublicphotovoltaicRDprojectjointlyundertakenbyFrance,Italy,Spain,Switzerland,andGermany(withaprojectbudgetofEUR11.14million).[21]InOctober2022,itallocatedEUR2.93millioninfullfundingtoaprojectonultrathin-filmphotovoltaictechnologyandflexiblesolarcells,cooperativelydevelopedbytheNetherlands,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Greece,andGermany.[22]InDecember2022,itprovidedafullgrantofEUR5.11milliontoaperovskitephotovoltaicsRDprojectparticipatedbyFrance,Italy,theNetherlands,Portugal,Sweden,Switzerland,andGermany.[23]

TheinstallationofphotovoltaicfacilityisalsoheavilysubsidizedbyEUfunds.Forexample,theRRFfullyfundedseveralphotovoltaicinstallationprojectsinItaly,includingafullsubsidyofEUR1.5billiongrantedinJuly2022foranagrivoltaicinstallationproject[24]andanEUR89.5milliongrantinJuly2023tosupporttheexpansionof3Sun’sphotovoltaiccellproductionfacilities.[25]

D.EUfundsextendsupportforEVindustryfromRDandproductiontoconsumersubsidies

TheEUhasallocatedatleastEUR22billiontosupporttheelectricvehiclesector,mainlythroughgrants.SubsidiesfromtheRRF,HorizonEurope,ERDFandCEFeffectivelycoverallstagesoftheelectricvehiclesector,includingRD,manufacturing,charginginfrastructureinstallation,andconsumersupport.

TheRRFhasallocatedsubstantialsubsidiestoseveralelectricvehicleprojectsinSpain.InDecember2021,itprovidedEUR1.55billiontoSpain’s“MeasuresofencouragementoftransformativeprojectthevaluechainofVEC”(PERTEVEC)program,withatotalbudgetofEUR3billion,tosupportRDacrosstheentirevaluechain.[26]InMayandJuly2023,additionalgrantsofEUR837million[27]andEUR528.7millionweregiventothesameproject.Intheconsumersector,Francebeganofferingan“ecologicalbonus”of27%oftheVAT-inclusivepriceofelectricvehiclesfrom2023,withEUR985millionallocatedfromtheRRF.[28]In2021,Spain’s“IncentivesProgramforEfficientandSustainableMobilityIII”(MOVESIII;inSpanish,ProgramadeIncentivosalaMovilidadEficienteySostenible)programreceivedEUR150millionfromtheRRFtosupportelectricvehiclepurchasesandcharginginfrastructureinstallation.[29]In2021,theRRFalsoallocatedEUR5.5billiontoGermanyforprivateelectricvehicle,bus,andtrainconsumption,andcharginginfrastructure.[30]In2023,itprovidedEUR2.764billiontosupportthepurchaseofzero-emissionvehiclesbyindividualsinGermany.[31]

TheHorizonEuropeprogramprovidedafullsubsidyofEUR8millioninJune2015foranelectricvehicleenergysystemoptimizationprojectundertakenbyseveralEUmemberstates,includingFrance,Italy,theCzechRepublic,Germany,andtheUK.[32]InOctober2016,10EUmemberstates,includingItaly,Poland,andtheNetherlands,partneredwithBelarus,Turkey,Israel,theEuropeanCommission,andtheEuropeanGreenVehiclesInitiativeAssociation(EGVIA)toestablishtheERA-NETfund,aimedatpromotingthedevelopmentoftheEuropeanelectricvehicleindustry.TheHorizonEuropeprovidedEUR6.26millionforthisinitiative.[33]In2019,theHorizonEuropeallocatedEUR5.4milliontothe“1000kmPLUS”program,ajointinitiativebyFrance,Austria,theCzechRepublic,andGermany,focusedondevelopingelectricvehiclepowertrainsandkeycomponentsmanufacturingtechnologies.[34]InJuly2022,thefundfullysupportedthepowerelectronicsconversioninnovationprogram,withabudgetofEUR5.99million,jointlyundertakenbyFrance,Italy,Spain,Germany,andTurkey.[35]InJanuary2024,thefundprovidedafullsubsidyofEUR11.38milliontoanelectricvehiclefull-processmanufacturingtechnologyimprovementproject,jointlyundertakenbyFrance,Italy,and8otherEUmemberstates,alongwithNorwayandtheUK.[36]

InNovember2022,theERDFallocatedEUR21.38milliontoahigh-powerelectricvehiclecharginginfrastructurenetworkprojectjointlydeployedbyItaly,Romania,andSpain.[37]InFebruary2019,itprovidedaEUR15millionsubsidytoSpain’sMOVESprogram,[38]andin2020,itcontributedpartialfundingtotheMOVESIIprogram,whichhadabudgetofEUR100million,[39]tosupportelectricvehicleconsumptionandtheinstallationofcharginginfrastructure.[40]

II.EUMemberStatesprovidesignificantstateaidforthe“newtrio”throughStateresources

A.MemberStatesapplystateaidexemptionrulestosignificantlysubsidizethe“newtrio”industries

Article107(1)oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion(TFEU)statesthatanyaidwhichdistortsorthreatenstodistortcompetitionandaffectstradebetweenMemberStatesisincompatiblewiththeinternalmarketandisthusprohibited.

However,Article107(2)and(3)providevariousexceptionstothisprohibition.Whentheseconditionsaremet,stateaidisconsideredcompatible,ordeemedcompatible,withtheinternalmarket,allowingmemberstatestooffersuchaid.Examplesincludeaidfor“ImportantProjectsofCommonEuropeanInterest”(IPCEI)andaidforspecificeconomicactivities.TheIPCEIsrefertoprojectsthatsignificantlyadvanceEUindustry,economicgrowth,employment,greenanddigitaltransitions,andcompetitiveness.EachIPCEImustbejointlydevelopedbyatleast4memberstatesandnotifiedtotheEuropeanCommissionforapprovalbeforeimplementation.

Article108oftheTFEUmandatesthatmemberstatesnotifytheEuropeanCommissionofplannedstateaid,whichmaynotbeimplementeduntiltheCommissioncompletesitsreviewandgrantsapproval.However,theTreatyauthorizestheEUCouncilandtheCommissiontospecifytypesofaidthatdonotrequirenotification.Tothisend,theCommissionissuedtheGeneralBlockExemptionRegulation(GBER)andtheDeMinimisRegulation.UndertheGBER,memberstatesmayprovideregionalaid,SMEaid,environmentalaid,RDandinnovationaid,trainingaid,broadbandinfrastructureaid,localinfrastructureaid,supportforEuropeanterritorialcooperationprojects,andaidrelatedtofinancialproductsbackedbytheInvestEUFundwithoutnotifyingtheCommission.TheDeMinimisRegulationexemptsfromnotificationanyaidofuptoEUR300,000perenterpriseover3fiscalyears.

Additionally,theCommissionintroducedtheTemporaryCrisisandTransitionFrameworktoexpandthescopeofaiddeemed“compatiblewiththeinternalmarket”underArticle107oftheTFEU.WithCommissionapproval,memberstatesmayprovidecertainaidthroughgrants,taxincentives,loanguarantees,concessionalloans,advancepayments,andmore.Thisincludesinvestmentandoperationalaidforenergystorageandrenewableenergypromotion,aidforelectrificationandindustrialdecarbonization,aidforreducingelectricityconsumption,andinvestmentaidforstrategicindustriestoacceleratethetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy.

B.MemberStateswidelysubsidizethebatterysectorbenefitingalargenumberofbattery-relatedenterprises

EUmemberstateshaveallocatedoverEUR6billioninsubsidiesfortwophasesofbatteryRDprojectsundertheIPCEI.TheyhavealsoprovidedatotalofEUR572milliontosixregionalaidprojectsthroughdirectgrants,taxincentives,andloanguarantees.[41]

Forexample,InJune2019,7EUMemberStates,includingFrance,Italy,andPoland,jointlynotifiedtheEuropeanCommissionofthefirstbatteryIPCEI,providingEUR3.2billionindirectgrantsto17companies:ItalyEUR570million,PolandEUR240million,FranceEUR960million,BelgiumEUR80million,FinlandEUR30million,SwedenEUR50million,andGermanyEUR1.25billion.[42]InthesecondphaseofthebatteryIPCEIapprovedbytheEuropeanCommissioninJanuary2021,France,Italy,and10otherparticipatingcountriesallocatedatotalofEUR2.9billioninstateaidto42subsidizedcompanies.SomeofthestateaidprovidedbyPoland,Slovakia,Croatia,andGreecewassupportedbyfundingfromtheERDF.ThestateaidfromEUmemberstateswasprimarilyintheformofgrants,withthefollowingamountsallocated:Germany,EUR1.5billion;Italy,EUR600million;France,Croatia,andSlovakia,EUR100millioneach;Poland,EUR20million;SwedenandAustria,EUR50millioneach;BelgiumandGreece,EUR40millioneach;Finland,EUR10million;andSpain,EUR1million.Additionally,Belgiumprovidedstateaidtorelevantresearchinstitutionsintheformof“repayableadvances.”[43]

FranceandGermanyalsoprovidedsubstantialspecifiedsubsidiestothebatteryindustry.InFrance,asofMay2023,the“France2030”planprovidedEUR19millioninstateaidforthe“PriorityResearchProgrammesandEquipments”(PEPR)project.The“BATMAT”planallocatedEUR15millioninstateaidfor80maturebatteryprojects,whilethe“BatteryInnovationSolutionsandTechnologies”program(inFrench,SolutionsetTechnologiespourl’InnovationdesBatteries)offeredEUR79millioninstateaidfor20projects.Additionally,the“MaterialsRecyclingInnovationSolutions”(RRR;inFrench,Solutionsinnovantespourl’améliorationdelarecyclabilité,durecyclageetdelaréincorporationdesmatériaux)programprovidedEUR30millioninstateaidandinjectedEUR500millionintoacriticalmetalsinvestmentfund.[44]InJanuary2024,theEuropeanCommissionapprovedEUR902millioninstateaidfromGermanytoNorthvolttosupporttheconstructionofacleanbatteryfactoryandlarge-scalebatteryproduction.ThissubsidyincludesEUR700millionindirectgrantsandEUR202millioninloanguarantees.[45]

C.MemberStates’subsidiesforthephotovoltaicindustryhavethelongestdurationandthelargestindividualamountamongthe“newtrio”industries

IntheEU,countrieslikeFranceandItalyofferupto20yearsofpricesubsidiesforphotovoltaicpowerplantconstructionandsolarenergyprojects,withtotalsubsidiesreachingatleastEUR23.6billion.InSeptember2017,theCommissionapprovedFrance’sStateaidforrenewableelectricityproduction,whichincludestwo20-yearsubsidiesforphotovoltaicpowergenerationamountingtoEUR4.6billion,providedthroughgovernmentprocurementandelectricitypricesubsidies.[46]InJuly2021,theCommissionfurtherapprovedaEUR30.5billionStateaidschemeforrenewableelectricityproductioninFrance,allocatingoverEUR11.6billiontothephotovoltaicsector.[47]InAugust2021,anotherEUR5.7billioninStateaidwasapprovedinFranceforsmallphotovoltaicinstallationsonbuildings,allowingthosewithapeakpowerofupto500kilowattstobenefitfroma20yearsfeed-intariff.[48]InNovember2023,theCommissionapprovedaEUR1.7billionItalianStateaidschemeforagrivoltaicinstallations,withitssubsidyrecipientsdeterminedthroughabiddingprocessthatwillallocateEUR1.1billionininvestmentgrantsfromtheRRFandEUR560millionintwo-waycontractsfordifference(CfD)orfeed-intariffsfor20years.Thespecificformsofthesubsidieswilldependontheinstalledcapacityoftherecipient’sproject.[49]

ItalyandotherEUmemberstatesalsooffertaxincentivesforinstallingphotovoltaicsystems.InMay2020,Italyintroducedthe“110%superbonus”taxdeductionforenergyefficiencyandseismicrenovationofresidentialbuildings,offeringataxexemptionamountingto110%oftherenovationcosts.Therearethreeavailabletaxexemptionmethods:(i)anincometaxcredit;(ii)supplierscoveringtheentirecostandreceivingataxexemption;and(iii)transferringthetaxexemptionamounttooffsetloansfrombanksorinsurancecompanies.[50]Underthispolicy,theinstallationofresidentialphotovoltaicsystemscanreceiveataxcreditofuptoEUR48,000.[51]Startingin2024,Italy’ssupersubsidypolicywilllowerthetax-exemptrateto70%.[52]

IntheEU,investmentprojectsaimedatproducingphotovoltaiccellsandrelatedcomponentsarealsoeligiblefordirectgrants.Forexample,theEuropeanCommissionapprovedstateaidpackagesofEUR1.2billionforPoland,[53]EUR1billionforPortugal,[54]andEUR520millionforLuxembourg[55]onSeptember17,September27,andOctober11,2024,respectively.Thesefundssupportinvestmentsinstrategicequipmentproduction,includingbatteries,photovoltaicpanels,windturbines,heatpumps,electrolyzers,carboncapture,usageandstorageequipment,andrelatedessentialcomponentsandcriticalrawmaterialstoacceleratethetransitiontoanet-zeroeconomy.[56]Additionally,onOctober3,2024,theCommissionagainapprovedaEUR1.2billionPolishaidpackagetosubsidizeinvestmentsinenergystoragefacilities,furtherpromotingtheshifttoanet-zeroeconomy.[57]

D.MemberStatesgenerallyusesubsidiestostimulateconsumptionintheelectricvehiclesector

By2023,all27EUmemberstateshadimplementedatleastoneelectricvehicleconsumptionsubsidypolicy,primarilyintheformoftaxincentivesandgrants.GermanyaloneallocatedEUR10billioninsubsidiesforelectricvehicleadoption.[58]

Intermsoftaxincentives,memberstatessuchasFrance,Spain,andGermanyoffervarioustaxbenefitsforelectricvehicleconsumption,includingregistrationtax,personalincometax,andcirculationtax.Forexample,Franceprovidesa50%reductiononregistrationfeesanda100%exemptiononlicenseplateregistrationfeesforfullyelectricandhybridvehicles.[59]InJune2023,Spainintroduceda15%personalincometaxreductionforthepurchaseofelectricvehiclesandchargingequipment.ThetaxdeductionappliesuptoEUR20,000forelectricvehiclesandEUR4,000forchargingequipment.[60]Germanyhasextendeditsexemptionfrommotorvehicletaxforelectricvehiclesmultipletimesbetween2012and2023,includinga10-yearcirculationtaxexemptionintroducedin2016.[61]

Grantsareanotherimportantmeansofpromotingelectricvehicleconsumption.InMay2020,FrancelaunchedanEUR8billion“AutomotiveIndustryRevitalizationPlan”(inFrench,Planderelancepourl’industrieautomobile)，whichencompassesstateaidforelectricvehicleconsumption,production,andthedeploymentofcharginginfrastructure.[62]Intheareaofelectricvehicleconsumption,thestateaidtakestheformofecologicalsubsidiesforcarbuyersortrade-inbonusesforconsumerspurchasingelectricorhybridvehiclestoreplacedieselorgasolinecars.[63]Atthelocallevel,since2019,131citiesintheParismetropolitanareahaveprovidedvaryingamountsofstateaidtosupportthepurchaseofelectricvehicles.[64]InMay2016,Germanyintroducedthe“GovernmentProgrammeforElectricMobility”plan,providingEUR1.2billioninenvironmentalbonusforthepurchaseoffullyelectriccarsandplug-inhybridvehicles,andEUR300millionfortheexpansionofcharginginfrastructure.Theenvironmentalbonusisequallyfundedbythefederalgovernmentandtheautomotiveindustry,withhalfofthesubsidiesgiventomanufacturerstoreducethecarpriceandtheotherhalftoconsumersasgrants.[65]GermanyprovidedanadditionalEUR2.2billioninenvironmentalbonusforthepurchaseofelectriccarsandplug-inhybridvehiclesbetween2020and2021,andinvestedEUR1.2billioninelectricbuses.[66]

Sufficientandconvenientcharginginfrastructureisacrucialfactorinpromotingelectricvehicleconsumption.Therefore,EUmemberstatessuchasFranceandGermanyprovidesubstantialdirectgrantsandtaxincentivesfortheinstallationofchargingfacilities.In2016,FranceprovidedatleastEUR320millioningrantsthroughthe“Advenir”programtosubsidizetheseinstallations.[67]FrancealsoimplementedVATincentivesandtaxcreditpolicies.TheVATforhomechargingfacilitiesissetat5.5%，whiletheVATforinstallingchargingdevicesinbuildingsovertwoyearsoldis10%，andforbuildingsundertwoyearsold,itis20%.Additionally,from2021to2023,buyersofchargingdevicescanbenefitfromaspecialtaxcreditofuptoEUR300forpurchasingandinstallingthesefacilities.[68]WhileinGerman,inJuly2022,theGermanfederalgovernmentestablishedtheClimateandTransformationFund(KTF)，usingthenationalbudgettosupportenergytransitionandclimateprotectionfrom2023to2026.[69]InOctober2022,Germany’sFederalMinistryforDigitalandTransportapprovedacharginginfrastructuresubsidyplan,fullysupportedbythefund,withabudgetofEUR630millioncovering68specificmeasures.InJune2023,theministryallocatedEUR900milliontoimprovethesubsidyplan,withEUR500milliondedicatedtoprivatechargingstationsandEUR400milliontocommercialones.[70]

III.EU’ssubstantialsubsidiesforthe“newtrio”showsignificantimpactbutriskdistortingglobalmarket

Underthebannerofgreentransition,supportforunderdevelopedregions,andthedevelopmentofspecificindustries,EUfundsandMemberStates’Stateaidprovidedualfinancialbackingfortheimplementationofsubsidies.Variousincentives,includinggrants,taxexemptions,pricesubsidies,andpreferentialloans,worktogethertoadvancetheEU’strueobjective:seizingdevelopmentopportunitiesandassertingleadershipintheglobalcompetitionwithinthe“newtrio”sectors.

AvarietyofsubsidieshasenabledrapiddevelopmentoftheEU’s“newtrio”industries.ThebatteryindustryreceivedatleastEUR1.7billioningrantsandloanguaranteesfromtheEUbudgetbetween2014and2020.Since2019,EUmemberstateshaveprovidedoverEUR6.57billioninstateaidthroughIPCEIandregionalaidprograms.[71]Withdualsubsidysupport,theEUnowhosts10gigafactoriesand20under-constructionplantsforbatteryproduction,meetingtwo-thirdsoftheEU’smarketdemandforbatteries.[72]From2022to2023,theEU’sshareofgloballithiumbatteryexportsgrewfrom28.2%to30.3%.[73]Inthephotovoltaicsector,EUfundsandstateaidtotaledatleastEUR8.6billionandEUR23.6billion,respectively.Thesesubsidiesdroveover40%annualgrowthinphotovoltaicinstallationsfrom2021to2023,[74]whileEUsolarpanelexportsrose19%invalueand37%inquantityfrom2022to2023.[75]Intheelectricvehiclesector,EUfundsandstateaidreachedatleastEUR22billionandEUR10.8billion,respectively.By2023,theEUsurpassed630,000publicchargingpoints,withan84%increaseinDCchargers.[76]EUelectricvehicleexportsalsosurgedtoEUR22.3billionin2022,markinga100%increasefrom2021anda400%risefrom2019.[77]

Inconclusion,theEU“newtrio”subsidies,whichtakevariousforms,arebothspecifiedandsubstantial.NumerousinitiativeshavebenefitedfromEUfundsorStateaids,withsubsidiesaccountingforoverhalfoftheirtotalbudgets.ThesesubsidieshaveachievedinitialsuccessinpromotingthedevelopmentoftheEU’s“newtrio”industries.However,asthesesubsidiesgrowinscaleandscope,alongwiththeEU’sincreasingexportcompetitiveness,theyarelikelytodistorttheforeignandeventheglobalmarkets.

参考文献

[1]PrimarydatasourcesincludeofficialstatisticalreportsfromtheEuropeanCommission,subsidynotificationssubmittedbytheEUtotheWTO,andpublicationsbyEUmemberstategovernmentsorpublicagencies.